Explain the Rise and Fall of Keynesianism Essay - 1

Explain the Rise and Fall of Keynesianism - Essay Example It then goes on to discuss the all the theories that led to the rise of the Keynesianism and other potentially his radical forms of theories (Milgate and Eatwell 62). As asserted by Leeson (263), one of the factors that led to the rise of Keynesianism was the Keynes stewardship and experience with the treaty Versailles. This pushed him in making a break from the previous theory models he had put across. He involved many individuals into a treaty which led to the formation of the Economic consequences of the Peace (ECP) (Auerbach). From the book, he was established as an economy that had practical political skill to influence the policy making of the world economics at any summit. The peace treaties brought hope and expectation to the people’s development (Blinder 279). This also ensured unity and togetherness among the people. This further resulted in stability in the region and the nation at large which is requisite for a regional and economic development. Leeson (264) adds t hat another factor is the gold standard. This was a monetary system which used a particular economic unit based on a fixed weight and amount of gold. There were three types of gold standards: the first one was the gold specie standard in which the monetary unit is associated with the value of circulating gold coins or has the value of certain circulating gold coin together with other less valuable coins (Milgate and Eatwell 69). The second one, the gold exchange standard which did not involve the use of gold but a government guaranteed fixed exchange rate with another country which does not use gold (Blinder 281). Finally we have a gold bullion standard system which does not circulate gold but authorizes the selling of gold bullion on demand. This use of currency made Keynesianism a strong and powerful economy. Through this, many economies were attracted from different parts of the world in order to look for currency from them (Bleaney 265). During the 18th century when there were w ars within Europe and trade deficit with China, silver as a currency was drained from the economy of many Western European countries. Countries like United Kingdom created a massive recoinage program which acted as a currency reservoir for the UK. Unfortunately it came out that there was an exchange of unequal gold and silver currencies between the United Kingdom and Keynesianism. This later made Keynes so powerful and hence the rise (Yoshikawa 178). Keynesianism benefited from neo liberalism greatly. This is because the political philosophy they acquired enabled them to support economic liberalization. This allowed the Keynesianism to have their own economic theory and dominate it among the most powerful countries by then such as the United Kingdom and United States. Leeson (266) asserts that they had also a free trade and market control that was an advantage which made them became powerful economic and revenue gainers in the market. In addition, Keynesianism had control also over open markets and privatization of the market (Leeson, 268). They could also deregulate the laws that are enacted by other market policies in their favor. Keynesianism also had an upper hand in enacting his own market policies which would favor their market structure (Auerbach). This made them more powerful in controlling the economy of the region and hence their rise in power. Keynes had a stable monetary policy which had effectively demanded to

Stages in Consumer Decision Making Process Essay Example for Free

Stages in Consumer Decision Making Process Essay An individual who purchases products and services from the market for his/her own personal consumption is called as consumer.To understand the complete process of consumer decision making, let us first go through the following example:Tim went to a nearby retail store to buy a laptop for himself. The store manager showed him all the latest models and after few rounds of negotiations, Tim immediately selected one for himself.In the above example Tim is the consumer and the laptop is the product which Tim wanted to purchase for his end-use. Why do you think Tim went to the nearby store to purchase a new laptop ?The answer is very simple. Tim needed a laptop. In other words it was actually Tim’s need to buy a laptop which took him to the store.The Need to buy a laptop can be due to any of the following reasons: * His old laptop was giving him problems. * He wanted a new laptop to check his personal mails at home. * He wanted to gift a new laptop to his wife. * He needed a new laptop to start his own business. Look more:Â  the consumer buying process begins when essay The store manager showed Tim all the samples available with him and explained him the features and specifications of each model. This is called information. Tim before buying the laptop checked few other options as well. The information can come from various other sources such as newspaper, websites, magazines, advertisements, billboards etc. This explains the consumer buying decision process. 1. Step 1 Need is the most important factor which leads to buying of products and services. Need infact is the catalyst which triggers the buying decision of individuals. An individual who buys cold drink or a bottle of mineral water identifies his/her need as thirst. However in such cases steps such as information search and evaluation of alternatives are generally missing. These two steps are important when an individual purchases expensive products/services such as laptop, cars, mobile phones and so on. 2. Step 2 When an individual recognizes his need for a particular product/service he tries to gather as much information as he can. An individual can acquire information through any of the following sources: * Personal Sources He might discuss his need with his friends, family members, co workers and other acquaintances. * Commercial sources Advertisements, sales people (in Tim’s case it was the store manager), Packaging of a particular product in many cases prompt individuals to buy the same, Displays (Props, Mannequins etc) * Public sources Newspaper, Radio, Magazine * Experiential sources Individual’s own experience, prior handling of a particular product (Tim would definitely purchase a Dell laptop again if he had already used one) 3. Step 3 The next step is to evaluate the various alternatives available in the market. An individual after gathering relevant information tries to choose the best option available as per his need, taste and pocket. 4. Step 4 After going through all the above stages, customer finally purchases the product. 5. Step 5 The purchase of the product is followed by post purchase evaluation. Post purchase evaluation refers to a customer’s analysis whether the product was useful to him or not, whether the product fulfilled his need or not?

Case Study of Low Blood Pressure

Case Study of Low Blood Pressure Mr Jones has a BP of 90/60. Please name the appropriate health terminology in relation to his BP. Normal Range = Hypotension Low blood pressure is referred to as hypotension, especially in the arteries of the systemic circulation. Hypotension is generally considered systolic blood pressure less than 90 millimetres of mercury (mmHg) or diastolic less than 60 mmHg. A persons blood pressure reading appears as two numbers. The first and higher of the two numbers is a measure of systolic pressure or the pressure in the persons arteries when their heart beats and fills them with blood. The second number measures diastolic pressure or the pressure in the persons arteries when their heart rests between beats. A desired blood pressure is less than 120/80. In people who are considered to be healthy, low blood pressure without experiencing any symptoms is commonly not a concern and does not need to be treated. Low blood pressure may be a sign of an underlying issue, particularly in the elderly, where it might cause inadequate blood flow to their heart, vital organs, and brain. Fortunately, chronic low blood pressure without symptoms is rarely serious. Health issues may happen, however, when a persons blood pressure suddenly drops and their brain is deprived of an adequate blood and oxygen supply. The condition may lead to light-headedness or dizziness. A sudden drop in blood pressure usually happens in a person who has risen from a prone or sitting position to a standing one. When this occurs it is referred to as, postural hypotension or orthostatic hypotension. Another type of low blood pressure may happen when a person stands for extended periods of time. This is referred to as, neurally-mediated hypotension. Postural hypotension is considered to be a failure of a persons cardiovascular system or nervous system to react appropriately to sudden changes. Usually, when a person stands up, some of their blood pools in their lower extremities. If this remains uncorrected, it would cause the persons blood pressure to fall or decrease. A persons body usually compensates by sending messages to their heart to beat faster and to their blood vessels to constrict, offsetting the drop in blood pressure. If this does not happen, or does not happen quickly enough, postural hypotension is the result. Blood Pressure and Aging The risk of low and high blood pressure commonly increases as a person ages due in part to changes during the aging process. The flow of blood to a persons heart muscle and brain declines as a person ages, many times as a result of plaque build-up in their blood vessels. While the causes of low blood pressure may not always be clear, it might be associated with things such as: Heart arrhythmias Heart failure Heat exhaustion or heat stroke Hormonal issues such as an under-active thyroid, diabetes, or low blood sugar Liver disease Pregnancy Some over-the-counter drugs Some prescription medications Widening of the blood vessels Causes of Sudden Drops in Blood Pressure Sudden drops in a persons blood pressure may be life-threatening. A number of different things may cause this type of hypotension. The causes of sudden drops in blood pressure may include: A reaction to alcohol or medication Anaphylaxis, a severe allergic reaction Heart muscle disease High body temperature Loss of blood Low body temperature Sepsis Severe dehydration from diarrhoea, vomiting, or fever People at Risk of Postural Hypotension Postural hypotension, or low blood pressure when a person stands up quickly, may happen to anyone for a number of reasons such as lack of food, dehydration, or simply being overly fatigued. It might also be influenced by a persons genetic make-up, medication, aging, psychological factors, dietary ones, or acute triggers such as allergy or infection. Postural hypotension happens most often in people who are taking medications to control high blood pressure or, hypertension. It may also be related to strong emotions, pregnancy, diabetes, or hardening of a persons arteries. Seniors are affected by postural hypotension in particular, especially seniors who experience high blood pressure or autonomic nervous system dysfunction. Hypotension after eating is a common cause of dizziness or even falls. It is most common after large meals containing a lot of carbohydrates. Medical science believes it is caused by blood pooling into a persons vessels in their stomach and intestines. A number of medications are associated with postural hypotension as well. The medications may be divided into two major categories: Medications used to treat high blood pressure such as beta-blockers, diuretics, calcium-channel blockers, and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors Medications that have hypotension as a side effect such as anti-psychotics, neuroleptics, nitrates, anti-anxiety agents, tricyclic antidepressants, sedative-hypnotics, and medications for Parkinsons disease Some causes of naturally occurring postural hypotension exist. For example, dehydration and electrolyte loss might result from vomiting, diarrhoea, excessive blood loss during menstruation, or other conditions. A persons age associated decline in blood pressure regulation is another example and is something that might worsen due to certain health conditions or medications. Some diseases may cause postural hypotension as well. Diseases such as Shy-Drager syndrome or, multiple system atrophy, nerve issues such as peripheral neuropathy or autonomic neuropathy, cardiovascular disorders, nutritional diseases, or alcoholism may cause postural hypotension. Blood Pressure Ranges Listed below are the ranges for Low (Table 1) Normal (Table 2) and High (Table 3) blood pressure respectively. Systolic pressure (mm Hg) Diastolic pressure (mm Hg) Pressure Range 90 60 Borderline Low blood Pressure 60 40 Too Low Blood Pressure 50 33 Dangerously Low Blood Pressure Table 1 Low Blood Pressure Range Systolic pressure (mm Hg) Diastolic pressure (mm Hg) Pressure Range 130 85 High Normal Blood Pressure 120 80 Normal Blood Pressure 110 75 Low Normal Blood Pressure Table 2 Normal Blood Pressure Range If one or both numbers are usually high, you have high blood pressure (Hypertension). Systolic pressure (mm Hg) Diastolic pressure (mm Hg) Stages of High Blood Pressure 210 120 Stage 4 180 110 Stage 3 160 100 Stage 2 140 90 Stage 1 Table 3 High Blood Pressure Range Figure 1Visual representation of Systolic and Diastolic Ranges       Age Systolic BP Diastolic BP 3-6 116 76 7-10 122 78 11-13 126 82 14-16 136 86 17-19 120 85 20-24 120 79 25-29 121 80 30-34 122 81 35-39 123 82 40-44 125 83 45-49 127 84 50-54 129 85 55-59 131 86 60+ 134 87 The average Systolic and Diastolic blood pressure is affected by age, as shown in Age Males (mmHg) Females (mmHg) 1 3 80/34 120/75 83/38 117/76 4 to 6 88/47 128/84 88/50 122/83 7 10 92/53 130/90 93/55 129/88 Table 4 Average Systolic and Diastolic Ranges of Neonates and Infants Table 5 Average Systolic and Diastolic Ranges of Children and Adults Mr Jones has a HR of 153. Please name the appropriate health terminology in relation to his HR reading. Normal Range = What is an arrhythmia? An arrhythmia is a disruption in the hearts normal electrical system which causes an abnormal or irregular heart beat for no apparent reason. Anyone can develop an arrhythmia, even a young person without a previous heart condition. However, arrhythmias are most common in people over 65 who have heart damage caused by a heart attack, cardiac surgery or other conditions. There are many types of arrhythmias, including: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Heartbeats that are too slow (bradycardia) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Heartbeats that are too fast (tachycardia) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Extra beats à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Skipped beats à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Beats coming from abnormal areas of the heart Typical symptoms Some arrhythmias may occur without any symptoms. Others may cause noticeable symptoms, such as: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Chest pain à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Dizziness, sensation of light-headedness à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Fainting à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Fatigue à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Sensation of a missed or extra heart beat à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Sensation of your heart fluttering (palpitations) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Shortness of breath à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Weakness Figure 2 Location of Arterial Pulses where Heart Rate can be Detected Figure 3 Normal Heart Rate on an ECG Symptoms of Arrhythmias Symptoms of arrhythmias can vary widely from person to person. An arrhythmia may last for a few minutes, a few hours, a few days, even a few weeks at a time. Some people feel no symptoms at all. Most commonly, patients report feeling a rapid heartbeat, often described as a fluttering sensation. Depending on the severity of the arrhythmia, that may be the only symptom experienced. Others may experience shortness of breath, fatigue, dizziness or fainting. Types of Arrhythmias Arrhythmias that cause heartbeats that are too fast are called tachycardia. There are several different types of tachycardia, which are categorized by where they originate in the heart. Figure 4 Supraventricular Tachycardia Location and ECG Presentation Supraventricular Tachycardia (SVT) is a general term describing any rapid heart rate originating above the ventricles (the lower chambers of the heart). The most common SVTs are described below. Atrial fibrillation (AF or AFib) is the most common SVT. During AF, the heartbeat produced by the atria is irregular and rapid, sometimes up to 4 times faster than normal. This impairs the hearts ability to efficiently pump blood and increases the risk of developing blood clots which can cause a transient ischemic attack (TIA) or stroke. Atrial flutter (AFL) is similar to atrial fibrillation in that it is characterised by a rapid heartbeat, sometimes up to 4 times faster than normal that originates in the atria. It differs from atrial fibrillation (AF) in that the heartbeat is regular, not irregular. Atrial flutter also carries the risk of developing blood clots, though not as great as with AF. With atrial flutter, the electrical signal becomes trapped in the right atrium. It repeatedly travels in a circular pattern inside the right atrium, only occasionally escaping through the AV node to the ventricles. This causes your atria to beat faster than the ventricles of your heart, at rates between 150 and 450 beats each minute. Atrioventricular nodal re-entrant tachycardia (AVNRT) is the second most common SVT. In a normal heart, there is a single electrical pathway, or gate, called an atrioventricular node (AV node) that controls the timing and direction of the electrical signal as it travels from the upper chambers (atria) to the lower chambers (ventricles) of the heart. With AVNRT, an extra electrical pathway forms which allows the electrical signal to travel backward through the gate (AV Node) at the same time, starting another heartbeat. During AVNRT the electrical signals continuously go around the 2 pathways in a circular pattern called re-entry. This can lead to a very fast heart rate of 160 to 220 beats per minute. Atrioventricular reciprocating tachycardia (AVRT) is similar to AVNRT in that an extra electrical pathway is formed that allows the electrical signal to travel backward from the ventricles to the atria. However, in AVRT the extra pathway circumvents the AV node, or gate. This extra pathway around the outside of the AV node is called an accessory pathway. Ventricular Tachycardia (VT) is a rapid heart rate (160 to 240 beats per minute) that originates in the ventricles. It may cause the heart to become unable to pump adequate blood throughout the body. VT most often occurs in patients with underlying structural heart disease, such as ischemic heart disease. Figure 6Ventricular Fibrillation ECG Presentation Ventricular Fibrillation (VF) is a tachycardia which causes the ventricles to contract in an irregular and very rapid manner. The heart immediately loses its ability to pump blood throughout the body. VF causes immediate loss of consciousness, and is invariably fatal within minutes unless it is stopped (usually by using a defibrillator.) AGE HEART RATE (BEATS/MIN) Infant 120-160 Toddler 90-140 Preschooler 80-110 School-age child 75-100 Adolescent 60-90 Adult 60-100 Table 6 Average Heart Rate Range by Age (Rested) Mr Jones has oxygen saturations of 75%. Please name the appropriate health terminology in relation to his oxygen saturations. Normal Range = Pulse oximetry is a non-invasive and continuous method of determining the oxygen saturation of haemoglobin (SpO2). Peripheral oxygen saturation (SpO2) is usually measured with a pulse oximeter placed on the finger. SpO2 is normally 95% to 100%. If the level is below 90%, it is considered low, resulting in hypoxemia. Blood oxygen levels below 80% may compromise organ function, such as the heart and brain, and should be addressed promptly. Accurate SpO2 measurements may be difficult to obtain on patients who are hypothermic, receiving IV vasopressor therapy, or experiencing hypoperfusion and vasoconstriction. Figure 9 Pulse Oximeter Oxygen Saturation Levels Severity % Saturation None/Minimal 95-100% Mild 90-94% Moderate 80-89% Severe Table 7 Oxidation (SpO2) Levels Mr Jones has a RR of 6. Please name the appropriate health terminology in relation to his RR reading. Normal Range = Slow Breathing (Bradypnoea) A slow respiratory rate is usually significant at a rate of 8 or less per minute. Often this is an emergency and requires immediate therapy. Conditions causing bradypnoea are the ingestion of drugs (such as, alcohol, narcotics, sedative-hypnotics), increased intracranial pressure from trauma and haemorrhage (pressure on the respiratory centre), severe respiratory depression (that is, CO2 narcosis) and coma from any cause. It is seen in many pre-arrest and end-stage conditions. Treatment Assisted ventilation is often required with a bag-valve-mask (BVM). Endotracheal intubation is frequently necessary. AGE RATE (BREATHS/MIN) Newborn 35-40 Infant (6 months) 30-50 Toddler (2 years) 25-32 Child 20-30 Adolescent 16-20 Adult 12-20 Table 8 Respiration Rate Range by Age Mr Jones has a temperature of 39 C. Please name the appropriate health terminology in relation to his temperature reading. Normal Range = Measurement site Mouth / Armpit Ear / forehead Rectum Low temperature Consult a doctor Normal temperature 35.9 37.0 à ¢- ¦C 35.8 36.9 à ¢- ¦C 36.3 37.5 à ¢- ¦C You are perfectly well Increased temperature 37.1 37.5 à ¢- ¦C 37.0 37.5 à ¢- ¦C 37.6 38.0 à ¢- ¦C You should get some rest Light fever 37.6 38.0 à ¢- ¦C 37.6 38.0 à ¢- ¦C 38.1 38.5 à ¢- ¦C Check your temperature regularly and rest Moderate fever 38.1 38.5 à ¢- ¦C 38.1 38.5 à ¢- ¦C 38.6 39.0 à ¢- ¦C Check your temperature regularly. Consult a doctor if you get worse or if the fever lasts for more than three days High fever 38.6 39.5 à ¢- ¦C 38.6 39.4 à ¢- ¦C 39.1 39.9 à ¢- ¦C Consult a doctor, especially if the fever lasts for more than one day Very high fever 39.6 42.0 à ¢- ¦C 39.5 42.0 à ¢- ¦C 40.0 42.5 à ¢- ¦C Go to emergency ward of a hospital Table 9 Human Body Temperature Ranges Figure 12 Centigrade and Fahrenheit Representation of Temperature Ranges and Bodily Affection Please explain what the term dysphagia means in words that MR Jones can understand. Dysphagia is another term for a swallowing disorder. A person with dysphagia may experience difficulty swallowing food, liquid and/or their saliva. Some people may be incapable of swallowing at all. Dysphagia occurs when there is a problem with any part of the swallowing process, and often is the result of a stroke. People with dysphagia often have to eat food which is softened and/or mashed and consume liquids which are thickened. Figure 15 Fluid and Food for Dysphagic Persons Please describe hemiplegia as if you were explaining what this term meant to a family member of Mr Jones and how would this impact on taking his blood pressure? What is hemiplegia? Hemiplegia (sometimes called hemiparesis) is a condition that affects one side of the body. We talk about a right or left hemiplegia, depending on the side affected. It is caused by injury to parts of the brain that control movements of the limbs, chest, face, and so forth. This may happen before, during or soon after birth (up to two years of age approximately), when it is known as congenital hemiplegia (or unilateral cerebral palsy), or later in life as a result of injury or illness, in which case it is called acquired hemiplegia. Generally, injury to the left side of the brain will cause a right hemiplegia and injury to the right side a left hemiplegia. Hemiplegia is a condition which is lifelong and non-progressive, that is they do not get worse. How does hemiplegia occur? Acquired hemiplegia results from brain injury. The most common cause is a stroke (when a bleed or blood clot damages part of the brain), but it can also result from a head injury or infection. What are the effects of hemiplegia? It is difficult to generalise: hemiplegia affects each person differently. The most obvious result is a varying degree of weakness, stiffness (spasticity) and lack of control in the affected side of the body, rather like the effects of a stroke. In one person this may be very obvious (he or she may have little use of one hand, may limp or have poor balance); in another person it will be so slight that it only shows when attempting specific physical activities. What can be done to help? Hemiplegia cannot be cured, but a lot can be done to minimise its effects and help the individual achieve their potential. The person, once diagnosed, will probably be referred to a rehabilitation department of your local or regional hospital. Therapists, who work as part of a wider network of professionals including neurologists and orthopaedic and neurosurgeons, will work in partnership with you to develop his or her abilities. Understanding hemiplegia and knowing how you can help your loved one achieve his or her potential is vital. Your loved ones management will probably be based on a multidisciplinary approach, involving physiotherapy, occupational therapy, and possibly speech therapy where required. A physiotherapist and often an occupational therapist will work closely with each other and with partners or carers, to agree a programme of management with specific goals that are tailored to your loved ones development and needs. The aim will be to improve their participation in everyday activities e.g. social activities, feeding, dressing, and toileting. The therapists will work to develop their skills, assessing posture and providing muscle stretching, and possibly strengthening activities. This will help prevent possible secondary consequences of the condition such as pain or the development of weakened muscles. Goals could include improving function so that your loved one can grasp an object with the affected hand, or walk better. They should take into account the partner/ carers views, the time and effort involved in carrying out therapy activities, the impact on the patient and his/her family and how effective the activities might be. A therapy programme will probably include training partners/carers, and later the induvial him/herself, to carry out exercises or techniques which they should continue to use at home, e.g. during dressing or bathing, so that they become part of the individuals everyday life. The persons progress should be reviewed regularly to assess how well the therapy programme is working and consider whether there is a need for other treatments as well. These might include orthoses (devices, such as splints, fitted to the body to improve posture and/or function); medications or orthopaedic surgery. In general the person with hemiplegia should be treated as normally as possible. It is essential to involve the affected side in everyday activities, to make your loved one as two-sided as he or she can be. Are there other problems associated with hemiplegia? Yes, there may be. Because hemiplegia is caused by injury to the brain, it is not just motor pathways and motor development that may be affected. And despite the developing brains effort to relocate functions to undamaged areas, additional diagnoses may occur. Some of these are medical in nature, such as epilepsy, visual impairment or speech difficulties. Many people have less obvious additional challenges, such as perceptual problems, specific learning difficulties or emotional and behavioural problems. Each patient should be fully assessed and regularly monitored to identify if any of these associated problems are present. What does the future hold? In merely defining hemiplegia with its causes and effects we leave out perhaps the most important issue the shock of diagnosis and the fear of the unknown. When a person is first diagnosed, it is often difficult for a doctor to predict whether problems will be mild or severe later in life. He or she will often adopt a wait and see approach, which the patient and their supporters may find difficult to accept, since they may feel they are not being given all the facts. Understanding hemiplegia and knowing how you can help your loved one achieve his or her potential is vital. Make good use of the specialists dealing with your loved ones hemiplegia. Do ask them questions and make sure you understand their replies, if necessary asking them to repeat them using non- specialist terms. Support Life can be difficult for someone with hemiplegia who want to do the same things as they previously did. They tire more easily and the effort involved in simple tasks can be considerable. They need all the help and encouragement you can give them. And you need support in your turn ideally from others who understand how you feel and with whom you can also share ideas and information. You may find general support groups for disabled patients and their families in your own area your hospital or library should have information. And you may want to a national organisatio

Leadership and Constitutionality In Times of War Essay -- War Governme

Leadership and Constitutionality In Times of War In times of crisis, nations look to leaders who will protect them from the dangers they fear. The United States has seen multiple wars and lived them out under multiple leaders, each of which had varying policies for protecting the American citizens from enemies, both foreign and domestic. Today we find ourselves asking how our present leader will protect the American citizens from outside terrorists, and wondering how previous leaders would react to the current situation. Some of the greatest and most revered presidents found themselves in the same situation we find ourselves today: where to draw the line between constitutionality and the safety of the American public. A closer look at three past presidents offers three different experiences with wartime policy and the preservation of civil rights in times of national emergency. The Father who Never Forgot: Madison’s Wartime Policy It would be impossible to say that James Madison ever forgot his writings of 1787. The Constitution would be forever engraved on his mind, the reminder of a shared vision between leaders who held history in the palms of their hands and shaped it into a fair and just Republic. Madison, as author of the document defining that very vision, shaped his own life and political policy to constantly mirror that vision. Of all the presidents of the United States, Madison was most likely the one who remained most loyal to the Constitution. Even in times of war, when other presidents would take further executive measures (as they were allowed,) Madison was reluctant to jeopardize his citizen’s civil rights. Madison’s wartime policy clearly reflects a leader dedicated to the Constitution and its pres... ... co-founders so carefully laid out in the document they produced that sweltering summer of 1787. Works Cited â€Å"Adams, John.† The American President. Accessed February 27, 2003; available from http://www.americanpresident.org/presbios/presbios.htm. LaFeber, Walter. The American Age: U.S. Foreign Policy at Home and Abroad, 1750-Present. New York: W.W. Norton and Co., Inc., 1994. â€Å"Madison, James.† The American President. Accessed February 27, 2003; available from http://www.americanpresident.org/presbios/presbios.htm. Rehnquist, Chief Justice William A. â€Å"Civil Liberty in Wartime: Remarks of Supreme Court Chief Justice William A. Rehnquist at the Director’s Forum, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, November 17, 1999.† [speech online] Accessed February 27, 2003; available from http://www.totse.com/en/politics/political_spew/rant1.html.

In Latin and other languages, Fluxus literally means flow and change Essay

In Latin and other languages, â€Å"Fluxus† literally means â€Å"flow† and â€Å"change.† Similarly, the related English word â€Å"flux† is used variously to mean â€Å"a state of continuous change†,†a fusion.† Fluxus ideas were prevalent well before the 1960’s, growing with the idea of intermedia, but first summarised, exemplified and presented in a festival jointly organised by the German, Joseph Beuys, and Lithuanian-born architect and designer, George Maciunas. It was Maciunas’ desire to show the work of a specific group of people, sharing the same thoughts on art at the time and it was he who coined the name Fluxus. The Fluxus performance festival held at the Dà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½sseldorf Art Academy on 2-3 February 1962 was a significant historical marker in the early development of the Fluxus group. Numerous Fluxus and Fluxus-type festivals and activities continued to be presented in Europe throughout the 1960’s after which the focus shifted to New York. Fluxus has been described as â€Å"the most radical and experimental art movement of the sixties.† Fluxus differs from most art in being purely conceptual. Characterized by a strongly Dadaist attitude, Fluxus promoted artistic experimentation mixed with social and political activism, an often celebrated anarchistic change. Although Germany was its principal location, Fluxus was an international avant-garde movement, active in major Dutch, English, French, Swedish, and American cities. Its participants were a divergent group of individualists whose most common theme was their delight in spontaneity and humour. Fluxus members avoided any limiting art theories, and spurned pure aesthetic objectives, producing such mixed-media works as poems, mail art, silent orchestras, and collages of such readily available materials such as scavenged posters, newspapers, and other ephemera. Their activities resulted in many events or situations, often called ‘Actions’ or as known in the USA, ‘Happenings’, which were works challenging definitions of art as focused on objects. Street theatre was very popular as were other performances such as concerts of electronic music. An account given by the American Fluxartist Dick Higgins described the sort of happening you would expect at one of his Fluxconcerts. This particular description is from the concert at Dà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½sseldorf and it had become a kind of set piece for these festival performances. Higgins described his arrangement, Constellation No 4 as follows: â€Å"Each performer chooses a sound to be produced on any instrument available to him, including the voice. The sound is to have a clearly defined percussive attack and a delay which is no longer than a second. Words, crackling and rustling sounds, are excluded because they have multiple attacks and decays†¦Each performer produces his sound as efficiently as possible, almost simultaneously with the other performers sounds. As soon as the last decay has died away, the piece is over.† A person, who attends a Fluxconcert, after the first shock, typically gets caught up in the spirit of it and begins to enjoy it, without consciously knowing why. What the recipient sees is coloured by his or her perception of it and instinctively he or she is matching horizons, comparing expectations, participating in the process; the more actively he or she does so, the more likely they will be able to enjoy the experience. In 1981 Dick Higgins Wrote a list of nine criteria that he suggested central to Fluxus: 1. internationalism 2. experimentalism and iconoclasm 3. intermedia (a term employed by Dick Higgins to describe an art form appropriate to people who say there are no boundaries between art and life) 4. minimalism or concentration 5. an attempted resolution of the art/life dichotomy 6. implicativeness (an ideal Fluxus work that implies many more works) 7. play or gags 8. epehmerality 9. specificity (work to be specific, self-contained and to embody all its own parts) Clearly not every work is likely to reflect all nine of these characteristics or criteria, but the more of them a work reflects, the more typically and characteristically Fluxus it is. Similarly not every work by a Fluxartist is a Fluxwork; typically Fluxartists do other sorts of work as well. The group pioneered these ideas at a time when their thoughts and practices in the world around them were distinct from the art world and different from the world of other disciplines in which Fluxus, would come to play a role. Like Duchamp, many Fluxus pieces (most notably the performance ones), are often characterised by their taking of a very ordinary event from daily life, and their being framed as art by being presented on stage as a performance situation. A collection of Fluxus works will inevitably include some pieces which are untransformed from life. Their significance is their ability to transform viewers’ horizons. According to Joseph Beuys, Fluxus intended to â€Å"purge the world of bourgeois sickness . . . of dead art,† to â€Å"promote a revolutionary flood and tide in art, anti-art, promote non art reality . . .† and to â€Å"fuse the cadres of cultural, social, and political revolutionaries into a united front and action.† I was particularly interested in the work of Joseph Beuys on view at the Tate Modern. He was a shaman, showman, teacher and tireless debater. He used the detritus of daily life in his work; materials representing energy such as fat, felt, wax, honey, and copper, iron, bronze and batteries. His use of felt and fat in particular relates back to his near death experience in World War II when he used the two materials to keep him warm. *Show Pictures* Most of his pieces have changed through time, relying as they do on materials that decay, ferment, dry up, or change colour. â€Å"Since life is in a constant state of flux,† he reasoned, â€Å"art, in order to bring itself closer to life, must be similarly ephemeral.† It was thus, in change, that Beuys sought to bring about the ultimate unity between art and life. Many of the Fluxartists were poor and could not afford to work with fine and costly materials. The sense that if Fluxus were to incorporate some element of ongoing change – flux -that the individual works should change. Many objects therefore were made of ephemeral materials, so that as time went by the work would either disappear or would physically alter itself. A work such as this made a strong statement rather than a work that would last throughout the ages in some treasure vault. Many of the Fluxartists work, such as Robert Fillous’s works have disappeared into thin air. A good example of this is the work we looked at in the lecture last week entitled ‘The artists breath’ by Yves Klein. George Maciunas planned to create a Fluxus Board of Directors which he would head from the Headquarters in New York. Maciunas wrote a letter to Thomas Schmit, in the form of a Fluxus manifesto, as which it is often referred. He stated that: * Fluxus objectives are social and not aesthetic * The gradual elimination of fine arts (music, theatre, poetry, fiction, painting, sculpture, etc.) was motivated by the desire to stop the waste of material and human resources and divert it to socially constructive ends such as: Industrial design, journalism, architecture, engineering, graphic-typographic arts, printing etc. * The movement was against the art-object as non-functional commodity to be sold and to make a livelihood for an artist. * It could have the function of teaching people the needlessness of art. Therefore teaching that a work should not be permanent * Fluxus is therefore anti-professional * Against art as a medium or vehicle promoting artists ego. * Applied art should express the objective problem to be solved not by the artist’s personality or ego. * Fluxus art should tend towards the collective spirit, anonymity and anti-individualism * Fluxus concerts and publications are at best transitional and temporary until such time that artists find other employment. Maciunas states that it is of utmost importance that the artist finds a profession from which he can make a living. * He says that there is no such thing as a professional revolutionary. Revolution is for participation of all and that a revolutionary should not practice something he is trying to overthrow or even worse, making a living from it, and that the best revolutionaries practice what they preach. * Fluxartists should not make a living from their Fluxus activities but find a profession (like applied arts) by which he would do best Fluxus activity. * The best Fluxus composition is a most non-personal, ready-made one. * Fluxus way of life is 9am to 5pm working socially constructive and useful work – earning your own living, 5pm to 10pm spending time on propagandizing your way of life among other idle artists and collectors and fighting them, 12pm to 8am sleeping (8 hours is enough) * You cannot live off your family because then you are being just as parasitic as artists living off the society, without contributing anything constructive. Maciunas also calls the need for copyright arrangements. * Authorship of pieces would eventually be destroyed, making them totally anonymous – thus eliminating the artist’s ego. The author would be Fluxus. Maciunas says â€Å"We can’t depend on each artist to destroy his ego. The copyright arrangement will eventually force him to it if he is reluctant.† May I also add at this point, Robert. C .Morgan, art critic, writer, artist and poet says that ‘By creating the absence of authorship, Fluxus has revived itself as a significant tendency in recent art.’ However, no one really wanted to sign the manifesto set out by Maciunas. Dick Higgins says that ‘We did not want to confine tomorrow’s possibilities by what we today. That manifesto is Maciunas’ manifesto, not a manifesto of Fluxus.’ George Brecht notes that: â€Å"Fluxus encompasses opposites.† â€Å"Consider opposing it, supporting it, ignoring it, changing your mind.† Clearly, with Fluxus, normal theoretical positions do not apply. They are not intended to do the same things as say a Jackson Pollock painting. It does not mimic nature in any narrative way. It does not attempt to move the listener, viewer or reader emotionally or intellectually. The Fluxartist does not even begin to reveal him-or herself through the work. The reception of Fluxus, its popularity, influence and in general, its acceptance, varies considerably. A Fluxperformance or an exhibition of Fluxus works attended by a person uneducated about the Fluxus field is apt to having an interesting and pleasurable experience. For most avant-guard art, one needs to know quite a considerable amount of art history in order to get ones bearings enough to be able to fuse one’s bearings and horizons and experience pleasure. There is a progressive intellectualism of the audience, thus more ideas of what will, or should happen. The spectators of a Fluxwork have to learn that these ideas are not under attack and that they are simply irrelevant to the work at hand. There are two bodies of people whose hostility towards Fluxus is profound. These are: 1. Groups of art professionals who work in art institutions and galleries. Fluxworks do not lend themselves easily to becoming precious objects which are sold or beautiful fetishes to immortalize the donor. It has more the quality of a souvenir or a sacred relic than or an exquisitely wrought product of fine craftsmanship. 2. Secondly, it is the artists who are ‘good’ in whatever it is that they do, but who are not good enough to be really secure in it.Such artists feel threatened by Fluxus. Victor Cousin’s phrase of 1816 says of art: ‘It is done for the love of it -‘for its own sake’. The Fluxus Collective believed that if value came to be attached to the work then great! But the work must be un-commercial in its very nature. -Conclusion- Fluxus is more important as an idea and a potential for social change than as a specific group of people or collection of objects, action and life activity. Fluxus tried to eclectically organise itself around the advantages of existing strategies at the same time that it attempted to avoid their abuses. Fluxus was committed to social purpose but opposed the authoritarian means by which it was historically achieved. Today, it is clear that the radical contribution Fluxus made to art was to suggest that there is no boundary to be erased between art and life. The Fluxus movement does not present correct political or social views – all the elements behave democratically. Not one piece dominates another. The movement sees a world inhabited by individuals of equal worth and value. By chance, this movement entered the scene, and changed the worldwide view previously held. For a group of artists who sought the reunification of art & life, the current institutionalization of Fluxus is paradoxical, yet the subversive nature of their project; the challenge to hierarchy and authoritarianism, still persists today

Merchant of Venice by William Shakespeare Essay

Mercy is compassionate treatment, while justice is the administration of law. Justice may not necessary include mercy. Mercy is natural. Portia says that the â€Å"quality of mercy is not strained†, it is not a forced effort but something that one already possesses. Mercy cannot be forced by anyone; it is something that one must come up within himself. Like how â€Å"gentle rain† cannot be created artificially, it is sincere. Mercy also benefits the merciful. Portia says that â€Å"earth power doth then show likest God’s when mercy seasons justice†, implying that man can only become like God when he is merciful. Mercy is something that is powerful. Portia says, â€Å"scepter[s] shows the force of temporal power†¦but mercy is above this sceptered sway†, symbolizing that mercy is more powerful than mere symbols of earthly power, i.e. the crown and the scepter. Mercy is forgiving. Portia points out that God is merciful, and forgives us for our sins, and â€Å"in the course of justice none of us should see salvation†. Only with the mercy of God would they be delivered. Mercy is reciprocal, and â€Å"twice blest†, bringing good tidings to both â€Å"him that gives and him that takes†. Portia says that mercy is divine, as it â€Å"droppeth†¦from heaven† and â€Å"an attribute to God himself†. Mercy is a heavenly quality, a sacred virtue and he who has this characteristic becomes â€Å"likest God†. It is like â€Å"gentle rain from heaven†. Mercy is fair treatment to others. For example, the Duke asks Shylock to â€Å"forgive a moiety of the principal†, sympathising with Antonio as he has lost money in his wrecked investments. Justice is strict and condemning, as the place where justice is practised is  described as the â€Å"strict court of Venice†. Portia asks Shylock to â€Å"mitigate†¦thy plea†, exemplifying how justice is indeed harsh. Justice is earth-bound, dispensed and followed by Man. â€Å"No power in Venice† can alter justice, meaning that justice can be changed by heaven’s mercy. Justice is something that follows laws strictly, and is blind. Even as Shylock says, â€Å"What judgment shall I fear, doing no wrong,† he emphasizes how justice is strictly based on laws, as he has nothing to fear despite plotting against Antonio’s life as the law says he is entitled to. Justice is one-sided, and that it clearly defines a loser and winner. Shylock, who thinks that justice and mercy cannot be reconciled, decides the fate of Antonio, saying, â€Å"it is his humour†, as he has lost three thousand ducats in the deal. Justice is inflexible. As Portia states, â€Å"there is no power in Venice that can alter a decree established†, she is also hinting to Shylock that heavenly mercy is the only thing that can change justice, and it is unchangeable otherwise. Mercy is something that enhances justice, and â€Å"mercy seasons justice†. Too much mercy spoils justice, as it will thus become too lenient, but without mercy, justice is bland.